Three municipal approaches to maintaining and improving water quality.

By Darlene Snow

Jumping from point-source and reservoir sampling programs to stormwater monitoring might seem as simple as adding a few sampling sites to the mix, enforcing construction ordinances, and stenciling some storm drains. But to really make a difference in water quality, large and small communities are finding that water-quality management programs require equal parts sampling, deductive reasoning, community involvement, and common sense.

Smaller communities requiring National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Phase II permits have been scrambling to create interdepartmental stormwater task forces and watershed management plans that go beyond their existing sampling protocols, which tend to focus primarily on drinking-water supplies. Larger communities, on the other hand, have a head start and can serve as important models for stormwater pollution prevention programs.

To get a sense for how cities and counties are developing programs to monitor and improve stormwater quality, this article looks at how three very different communities are approaching this issue.

Clermont County, OH

The 600QS (Quick Sample) multiparameter hand-held sampler

In 1995, Clermont County (population 178,000) completed a wastewater master plan that proposed a strategy for effectively treating wastewater throughout the county. Soon after, it became evident that more control measures were needed and that a number of other pollutant sources had to be addressed to protect the water quality of the county's streams and lakes. Consequently, in 1996 the county initiated a comprehensive monitoring program to characterize conditions of the East Fork Little Miami River watershed. The results were used to implement control measures to protect and improve the water quality. With this program, Clermont County's Office of Environmental Quality (OEQ) accomplished the following:

• Assessed the physical conditions of stream channels
• Conducted annual biological surveys to evaluate the fish and macroinvertebrate communities and their habitats
• Conducted annual water-quality sampling to monitor concentrations of various pollutants
• Established five autosampling stations to continuously monitor conditions and collect samples during and after periods of rain

According to John McManus, environmental information technician with OEQ, the data collected since 1996 show that water quality in Clermont County streams is relatively high, although a few problem areas exist. The water-quality monitoring and sampling program began in 1997 with biweekly ambient monitoring of parameters and a biological survey. The initial sampling protocol involved regular grab samples, independent of the weather. In 1999, five autosampling stations were established that are triggered when the streams reach a predetermined height.

In 2001, with the concurrence of the four counties located in the upstream portions of the watershed, OEQ added manual sampling to 15 dry-sample sites and five wet-sample sites outside the county's borders. Also in 2001, the county developed a watershed report card that rates the conditions at each of the sampling locations as good, fair, or poor and as decreasing, increasing, or remaining steady in terms of quality.

A combination of field measurements and lab analyses are used to test the samples. In the field, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and conductivity are measured. Nutrients, metals, sediments, suspended solids, and bacteria are laboratory tested. The county uses a contractor to conduct the biological survey.

Monitoring equipment used includes the Isco 4220 flow meter, Isco 6700 Series autosamplers, Isco 675 rain gauges, and YSI 600R and 600XLM data sondes. The Isco flow meter is a submerged probe that can provide accurate measurements at sites where wind, steam, foam, turbulence, or air temperature fluctuations exist. The YSI sondes measure a range of fundamental parameters, including dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, and pH.

Once collected, the sampling data are entered into a Microsoft Access computer-modeling database created by Tetra Tech Inc. The YSI data from the five autosampling stations will be available to the public in real time on OEQ's Web site, www.oeq.net.

In 1998, the county established a watershed management program that includes a public education component. "We started by giving the public stakeholders committee a lesson in Water Quality 101," recalls McManus. "Now we have some very educated residents."

In September 2000, to further show its commitment to environmental quality, the county joined USEPA's Project XLC (eXcellence and Leadership for Communities) program. Through Project XLC, Clermont County has entered into a multiphase agreement with EPA and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (OEPA) to develop a plan that will help the county maintain a balance between economic growth and environmental preservation. Part of this process involves creating a comprehensive watershed management plan for achieving defined water-quality goals.

Because of growth in the county, McManus notes it is important to offset the impacts of development in the water-quality management plan. According to McManus, under this program the county is investing in watershed management controls not currently required by federal regulations and offering them much sooner than would otherwise be required under state regulations.

As part of the Project XLC process, OEQ is creating watershed action plans for different segments of the East Fork Miami River watershed, in conjunction with the East Fork Watershed Collaborative. Because the watershed encompasses a 500-mi.², four-county area, the management plan will break down the watershed into 13 distinct areas, enabling local villages and townships to take more ownership in the developing plans.

Under a requirement by OEPA, Clermont County and many of its municipalities and townships are applying for a Phase II stormwater permit and have prepared a comprehensive stormwater management plan. OEQ prepared the Phase II plan through an interagency stormwater task force comprising representatives from OEQ, the county's Building Inspections and Water and Sewer Departments, the county engineer, the Clermont General Health District, the local Soil and Water Conservation District, and villages and townships in the county impacted by Phase II. The county formed a public stakeholders committee and went through a public comment period with the plan.

According to McManus, the biggest problem areas with regard to stormwater pollutants are nutrients, sediment, bacteria, and habitat alteration. Phosphorous from sewage treatment plants, septic systems, and agriculture runoff is a problem. Rapid growth in the county is causing sediment issues from construction sites. Consequently, part of the Phase II plan calls for increasing enforcement of the county's waste management and sediment control ordinance requiring construction sites to use best management practices (BMPs). Management of nutrients and bacteria from onsite septic systems will continue to be an issue since switching most of the county over to sewer hookup was deemed too costly. As for habitat alteration, Phase II planning addresses ways to mitigate stream-channel erosion.

The county is considering forming a stormwater utility and setting goals for the program. "The first step is to get some rough estimates for quantitative goals for percent reduction in place,"marks McManus. "OEQ is also hoping to take the lead in developing its own [total maximum daily loads] for the watershed, if we can get the resources. Once this is in place, we'll have the waste loads and quantitative numbers we need to set goals."

San Diego, CA

The discrete TR-3010 Automatic Stormwater Sampler monitors turbidity.

The City of San Diego (population 1.25 million) created a stormwater program in 1993 to address NPDES permit requirements, established a stormwater pollution prevention program, and hired staff. By 1999 the city had hired code enforcement officers to enforce the stormwater municipal code. By 2001 the program was elevated to a division, a deputy director was hired, and it began adding staff. The division is segmented into six programs: monitoring, enforcement, public information and education, interagency watershed and interdepartmental coordination, administration, and engineering. These programs are organized under the deputy director, who ensures compliance with city goals, enforcement of the municipal code, and compliance with state and federal regulations related to stormwater runoff and management.

Because the city's NPDES permit is combined with the County of San Diego, the San Diego Unified Port District, and 17 other cities, implementation of the stormwater monitoring program is done in concert with the other co-permittees.

In February 2001, the San Diego Regional Water Quality Board issued a new NPDES permit to the co-permittees that requires a transition to watershed-based compliance by 2005. The new permit requires specific monitoring components to assess the impacts of runoff on receiving waters. Specific measures that the city is taking to comply with the permit and improve stormwater quality are described below in relation to the different sections within the city's stormwater division.

Monitoring

Under the city's program, the monitoring group is responsible for gathering and interpreting data and samples from receiving waters. Monitoring is divided into wet-weather and dry-weather sampling. The city measures for four classes of pollutants - microbes, nutrients, sediment/silt, and toxic substances - as well as general chemistry.

According to Garret Williams, a biologist in the Storm Water Pollution Prevention Division, Monitoring and Special Projects Section, during the wet season the co-permittees sample from 11 sites along the coast. The sites represent outfalls of the eight major watershed management areas, the latter four falling wholly or partially within the city of San Diego: Santa Margarita River, San Luis Rey River, Carlsbad, San Dieguito River, Mission Bay, San Diego River, San Diego Bay, and Tijuana River. The sampling sites, or "mass-loading stations," are installed as close to the receiving water as possible. The city uses automated sampling equipment to monitor the flow and collect flow-weighted composite samples. "The size of the sample depends on the water flow. If there's a lot of water, we take a larger sample," explains Williams. MEC Analytical Systems Inc. of Carlsbad, CA, oversees this process for the city and the other co-permittees and regularly calibrates the equipment.

According to Lisa Kay, principal/watershed science practice leader with MEC Analytical Systems, the purpose of the monitoring program is to determine the ecological health of receiving waters in the county based on biological, toxicological, physical, and chemical evidence. "What's unique about the program is that it is designed to provide long-term trend information based on a triad approach of using mass-loading stations, stream bioassessment, and ambient bay and lagoon monitoring," says Kay.

The bioassessment monitoring is conducted in the spring and fall to evaluate benthic macroinvertebrates. This assessment is used to obtain a long-term measure of stream habitat and ecological response. The ambient bay and lagoon-monitoring element involves the assessment of the benthic environment that is influenced by urban runoff.

Mass-loading stations have been established in each watershed in the county and are located in the larger rivers or creeks in the lower reaches of 11 watersheds, states Kay. The stations are monitored during three storm events each wet season. Flow-weighted composite samples are collected from the storm flow in each river and analyzed for bacterial indicators, chemical parameters, and toxicity to three species of bioassay test organisms.

According to Chris Warn, senior scientist with MEC, the mass-loading stations include a Sigma 950 Flow Meter used in conjunction with an American Sigma 900 MAX Auto-sampler and an American Sigma Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge. The tipping bucket rain gauge measures rainfall and relays that information to the flow meter. The flow meter calculates flow based on river stage, which is measured with a pressure transducer. The river stage is related to flow through periodic stream ratings. Field crews rate the rivers and streams using USGS Stream Rating Protocols with a Marsh-McBirney Flo-Mate 2000 handheld flow meter at different times throughout the storm season. The sampling program is a flow-weighted composite, and the stations are controlled through telemetry using both landlines and cellular phones for communication.

"Elevated bacteria at our beaches can limit their use for swimming and surfing, so it is our number-one concern," maintains Williams. Because bacteria cannot be measured with quick and simple field-testing kits, the city sends water samples to a laboratory for testing; lab results can take 18-24 hours to obtain. As for the source of the bacteria, Williams describes it as ubiquitous. He does not believe there are any illegal sewer connections to storm drains, though the city sometimes finds people plumbing washing machines over the side of hills and into yard drains that flow to the streets and creeks. Nor is there much waste from confined animals. Instead, bacteria are believed to come primarily from dog waste that is not picked up, natural sources within the deep coastal canyons, and uncovered and leaky trash cans and Dumpsters.

During the dry-weather season, from May to September, the city uses a combination of field observations, field-screening monitoring, and analytical monitoring at selected stations. Out of the 300 sites monitored through the dry-weather program, about 75% are wet, reports Williams. The goal of the dry-weather program is to detect illegal discharges. He says the field monitors are trained to look for other clues such as color, odor, floatables, and organisms living within the streams and around the storm drain outlets. "Visual and biological indicators can give you clues as to what is happening upstream. Runoff should be clear. If it is opaque, then it contains something that is not legally dischargeable," Williams describes. As for smell, "If it smells like soap or petrol, for example, then something was discharged upstream that is not allowable." Monitors look for bubbles, trash, and other foreign matter. "We go through a deductive process evaluating chemical data and our observations to determine what might be causing the adverse conditions."

Williams remarks that the biology of the water is another strong indicator. "We look for the benthic macroinvertebrates and other stream inhabitants - the organisms that live in the interstitial areas of the creeks. If all we see are worms and snails, then we ask where are the dragon flies, crawfish, and water striders, which indicate better water quality." He adds that if nothing is alive in the water, toxic conditions might have been present in the recent past.

To cut costs on sampling programs, Williams advises other communities to use a combination of visual, biological, and field tests to assess water quality and identify pollutant sources. Field tests are less expensive than lab testing and can provide a quick screening for a number of parameters, including temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, ammonia, nitrate, and phosphate. These parameters can be used as indicators for pollution problems. He points out, "If field-test results yield values outside of known acceptable ranges, then you begin to think something's not right." Ammonia is a good indicator of sewage or runoff from confined animals. Elevated nitrates and phosphates are good indicators for pollution from common fertilizers.

Unlike monitoring point-source pollution, nonpoint-source pollution monitoring requires a combination of deduction and detective work. "We can pretty much figure out the source based on observation patterns and chemical signature," Williams relates. The city put its storm drain and land-use maps on a GIS computer map and, based on the type of pollutant, can deduce from what area it might be coming.

Regional data from the stormwater monitoring program are collected from the co-permittees. "Watersheds do not stop at political borders,"marks Williams. The four major watershed management areas feeding into San Diego cover just about one-third of the populated areas within the county. The participating cities, the county, and the port authority have agreed to use standard field forms, measurements, and terminology in reporting data. These data are entered into a custom-designed database. The data results are reviewed regularly to determine what additional monitoring should be done and to identify problems and solutions.

Enforcement

The enforcement section uses code compliance officers to respond to complaints called into the city hotline and to patrol areas for illegal discharges. The officers are trained to identify violations and provide information about legal alternative behaviors. The primary goal of the enforcement program is to gain compliance. Often this can be accomplished with education. "First the officer will tell them what they have done wrong and then tell them how to comply with the ordinance," explains Williams. "Most people don't know that what they are doing is wrong." Depending on the severity of the discharge, the city may issue a warning and use the opportunity to educate the violator before issuing an actual citation or assessing a fine.

According to Williams, the most common problems come from construction activity, such as residential do-it-yourselfers, and from commercial areas, such as restaurants and auto repair shops. "There are many individual home construction projects going on where a homeowner may clean a pool or wash paint brushes or concrete mixing bins out in the street or their driveway where the chemicals, paints, or mortar washes right into the storm drain." Compliance officers will explain that brushes and buckets should be washed out in a sink. Cement mortar, which contributes particulates, sediment, and elevated pH to stormwater if washed down storm drains, can be poured into a catch basin, left to dry, then disposed of with the trash.

With restaurants, officers regularly find employees washing kitchen floor mats - which are full of grease, food, and bacteria - outside. Another common practice is dumping mop water outside. The officers use this opportunity to explain how the restaurant is violating the ordinance and how to clean the mats and dispose of the mop water in an indoor mop sink or floor drain connected to the sanitary sewer.

"People don't usually get the connection between water and pollution," observes Williams. "Water is not the pollutant, it's the vehicle that moves the pollutant. Many people think that because the water from their hose or bucket is clean, it is OK to dispose of the water on the driveway or into a gutter. But water picks up grease, sediment, fertilizers, bacteria, and other pollutants on its way down the gutter that would otherwise be picked up by a street sweeper."

Public Education

The city believes pollution prevention education is a cost-effective BMP. And with more than 154 mi. of shoreline in San Diego County, including more than 50 mi. of accessible swimming beaches, San Diego has the advantage of being able to make the obvious connection to residents between stormwater runoff, beach closures, and San Diego's quality of life. The city's public education and media campaign, "Think Blue," uses pamphlets, radio and television commercials, and news interviews to educate the public about the issue and what residents, businesses, and industry can do to clean up San Diego's beaches and bays. The campaign is bilingual (English and Spanish) and accessible via the Web at www.thinkbluesd.org.

Interagency and Interdepartmental Coordination

An important part of the stormwater program is interagency and interdepartmental cooperation. According to Williams, early in the program the deputy director for the Storm Water Pollution Prevention Division called a meeting with other directors for help in reaching the compliance requirements. As part of this program, all 12,000 city employees received mandatory stormwater training and activity-specific training for those who are critical to storm drain pollution prevention. For example, building engineers are trained in BMPs, water department employees are trained not to open fire hydrants into storm drains (they open them onto lawns instead), and street cleaning crews are using brooms instead of water. Another important component is that the city council and mayor are behind the program. "Having the top support and interdepartmental cooperation has been really important,"marks Williams.

The program relies on its administrative section to provide support to staff, assistance with grant funding opportunities, and budgeting. The engineering section coordinates construction-site compliance issues and develops and reviews BMPs for construction runoff cleanup.

Westminster, CO

The City of Westminster (population 100,000) lies just 15 mi. northwest of Denver on the Rocky Mountain front range, straddling two counties - Adams and Jefferson.

Since the late 1970s, Westminster has had a water-quality program to monitor the Clear Creek Basin and Standley Lake reservoir. Standley Lake supplies drinking water to three cities: Westminster, Northglenn, and Thornton. At the lake, the Westminster Water Quality Department installed an Apprise Technologies RUSS system (Enviro VB-25) in 2002, a stationary unit that provides daily monitoring data. "We send the probe down every day to profile a 25-meter column, taking data every meter," describes Steve Ramer, lab analyst. In addition, workers visit the lake every week to take samples and recalibrate the probe.

RUSS allows users to remotely monitor water quality from surface to bottom.

"The RUSS system gives us more flexibility," comments Ramer. The Enviro VB-25 is designed for operation on inland lakes, rivers, harbors, and other sheltered bodies of water. As with all the RUSS system platforms, the Enviro acquires, stores, and sends water-quality parameters along the water column in real time to the city's office. According to the manufacturer, the Enviro is set up to accept most commercially available sensors or probes. This means the list of parameters that are measured might vary with each application but generally includes multiple parameters, such as temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, and chlorophyll.

Using a multisensor probe and cellular phone telemetry (analog or digital), the Enviro can measure depths up to 82 ft. The flotation module measures 36 in. wide by 46 in. high and is powered by one high-efficiency 36-watt solar panel. An underwater cable is specifically designed for power and data transmission.

In addition, sampling points are strategically located all along the basin, from Loveland Pass down to the reservoir. The program initially was set up to look at point-source pollutants in the drinking-watershed. "We are monitoring the impact of development on the reservoir very closely," reports Ramer.

Westminster samples eight times a year from 25 points downstream of wastewater treatment plants, industrial areas, and developments. "A number of the treatment plants are undersized and at capacity, so we monitor the water quality from these plants closely," says Ramer. Monitoring is also important because Clear Creek Basin is used for water exchange with downstream users. The city also monitors Jim Baker Reservoir, a nondrinking-water and recreational lake, with sampling seven times a year.

According to Kipp Scott, water-quality administrator with the Westminster Public Works and Utilities Department, before preparing its NPDES permit application, the city had no program that specifically addressed stormwater quality. To prepare for Phase II compliance, the city formed an interagency stormwater task force, with representatives from its Public Works and Utilities, Community Development, and Environmental Enforcement Departments.

The previous water-quality program had been established to monitor the city's drinking-water sources and point-source pollutants. Scott anticipates that the city will be able to roll that program over to address stormwater issues, though the program will have to change from one that is facility- and point-source based to one that is city-wide and more holistic in approach. The city has an extensive database on water-quality measurements for the major drainage basins, which Scott expects will make a good baseline characterization for measuring the progress of a stormwater program. He also expects that adding stormwater monitoring to the water-quality program can be done with some simple adjustments to the sampling locations.

Westminster enacted a city ordinance 10 years ago requiring BMPs and stormwater retention at construction sites. Because of this, the city likely already meets Phase II requirements for this element. "We've learned a lot in 10 years, though,"marks Scott. "For the Phase II program, we'll increase enforcement at these sites and strengthen the requirements for nutrient and sediments leaving the site."

Scott does not expect the city to establish a separate stormwater department, although it does collect a stormwater fee as part of the utility fee charged to residents. "Stormwater is more of a community program that involves several agencies," he adds. 

Darlene Snow is a writer based in Los Angeles, CA.

SW - May/June 2003

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